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雅思阅读练习题:信念实验

2017-04-05 10:33:57来源:网络 柯林斯词典

  新东方在线雅思网第一时给大家带来了雅思阅读练习题:信念实验希望以下内容能够为同学们的雅思备考提供帮助。新东方在线雅思网将第一时间为大家发布最新、最全、最专业的雅思报名官网消息和雅思考试真题及解析,供大家参考。

  Implication of False Belief Experiments 2

  You should spend about 20 minutes on Question 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage below.

  A

  A considerable amount of research since the mid 1980s has been concerned with what has been termed children's theory of mind. This involves children's ability to understand that people can have different beliefs and representations of the world -a capacity that is shown by four years of age. Furthermore, this ability appears to be absent in children with autism. The ability to work out what another person is thinking is clearly an important aspect of both cognitive and social development. Furthermore, one important explanation for autism is that children suffering from this condition do not have a theory of mind (TOM). Consequently, the development of children's TOM has attracted considerable attention.

  B

  Wimmer and Perner devised a false belief task' to address this question. They used some toys to act out the following story. Maxi left some chocolate in a blue cupboard before he went out. When he was away his mother moved the chocolate to a green cupboard. Children were asked to predict where Maxi will look for his chocolate when he returns. Most children under four years gave the incorrect answer, that Maxi will look in the green cupboard. Those over four years tended to give the correct answer, that Maxi will look in the blue cupboard. The incorrect answers indicated that the younger children did not understand that Maxi's beliefs and representations no longer matched the actual state of the world, and they failed to appreciate that Maxi will act on the basis of his beliefs rather than the way that the world is actually organised.

  C

  A simpler version of the Maxi task was devised by Baron-Cohen to take account of criticisms that younger children may have been affected by the complexity and too much information of the story in the task described above. For example, the child is shown two dolls, Sally and Anne, who have a basket and a box, respectively. Sally also has a marble, which she places in her basket, and then leaves to take a walk. While she is out of the room, Anne takes the marble from the basket, eventually putting it in the box. Sally returns, and the child is then asked where Sally will look for the marble. The child passes the task if she answers that Sally will look in the basket, where she put the marble; the child fails the task if she answers that Sally will look in the box, where the child knows the marble is hidden, even though Sally cannot know, since she did not see it hidden there. In order to pass the task, the child must be able to understand that another's mental representation of the situation is different from their own, and the child must be able to predict behavior based on that understanding. The results of research using been fairly consistent: most normally-developing children are unable to pass the tasks until around age four.

  D

  Leslie argues that, before 18 months, children treat the world in a literal way and rarely demonstrate pretence. He also argues that it is necessary for the cognitive system to distinguish between what is pretend and what is real. If children were not able to do this, they would not be able to distinguish between imagination and reality. Leslie suggested that this pretend play becomes possible because of the presence of a de-coupler that copies primary representations to secondary representations. For example, children, when pretending a banana is a telephone, would make a secondary representation of a banana. They would manipulate this representation and they would use their stored knowledge of 'telephone' to build on this pretence.

  E

  There is also evidence that social processes play a part in the development of TOM. Meins and her colleagues have found that what they term mindmindedness in maternal speech to six-month old infants is related to both security of attachment and to TOM abilities. Mindmindedness involves speech that discusses infants' feelings and explains their behaviour in terms of mental states (e.g. ‘you're feeling hungry’).

  F

  Lewis investigated older children living in extended families in Crete and Cyprus. They found that children who socially interact with more adults, who have more friends, and who have more older siblings tend to pass TOM tasks at a slightly earlier age than other children. Furthermore, because young children are more likely to talk about their thoughts and feelings with peers than with their mothers, peer interaction may provide a special impetus to the development of a TOM. A similar point has been made by Dunn, who argues that peer interaction is more likely to contain pretend play and that it is likely to be more challenging because other children, unlike adults, do not make large adaptations to the communicative needs of other children.

  G

  In addition, there has been concern that some aspects of the TOM approach underestimate children's understanding of other people. After all, infants will point to objects apparently in an effort to change a person's direction of gaze and interest; they can interact quite effectively with other people; they will express their ideas in opposition to the wishes of others; and they will show empathy for the feelings of others. All this suggests that they have some level of understanding that their own thoughts are different to those in another person's mind. Evidence to support this position comes from a variety of sources. When a card with a different picture on each side is shown to a child and an adult sitting opposite her, then three year olds understand that they see a different picture to that seen by the adult.

  H

  Schatz studied the spontaneous speech of three-year-olds and found that these children used mental terms, and used them in circumstances where there was a contrast between, for example, not being sure where an object was located and finding it, or between pretending and reality. Thus the social abilities of children indicate that they are aware of the difference between mental states and external reality at ages younger than four.

  I

  A different explanation has been put forward by Harris. He proposed that children use 'simulation'. This involves putting yourself in the other person's position/ and then frying to predict what the other person would do. Thus success on false belief tasks can be explained by children trying to imagine what they would do if they were a character in the stories, rather than children being able to appreciate the beliefs of other people. Such thinking about situations that do not exist involves what is termed counterfactual reasoning.

  Questions 27-33

  Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-G) with opinions or deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-G in boxes 27-34 on your answer sheet.

  A. Baron-Cohen

  B. Meins

  C. Wimmer and Perner

  D. Lewis

  E. Dunn

  F. Schatz

  G. Harris

  27. Giving an alternative explanation that children may not be understanding other's belief.

  28. found that children under certain age can tell difference between reality and mentality

  29. designed an experiment and drew conclusion that young children under age of 4 were unable to comprehend the real state of the world

  30. found that children who gets along with adults often comparatively got through test more easily

  31. revised an easier experiment rule out the possibility that children might be influenced by sophisticated reasoning.

  32. Related social factor such as mother-child communication to capability act in TOM

  33. explained children are less likely tell something interactive to their mother than to their friends

  Questions 34-40

  Summary

  Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No More than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 34-40 on your answer sheet.

  In 1980s, researches are designed to test the subject called 34 that if children have the ability to represent the reality. First experiment was carried out on this subject on a boy. And questions had been made on where the how ran find the location of the 35 But it' excessive 36 . So second modified experiment was conducted involving two dolls, and most children passed the test at the age of 37 . Then Lewis and Dunn researched 38 children in a certain place, and found children who have more interaction such as more conversation with 39 actually have better performance in the test, and peer interaction is 40 because of consisting pretending elements.

  参考译文:

  错误的信念实验

  A

  自从1980年代起就有大量的研究致力于研究从儿童的想法角度来看待问题,这牵涉到儿童理解人们对这个世界是有不同的信仰系统这一问题的能力——四岁的儿童所表现出的theory of mind(TOM)能力。此外,这种能力对于以自我为中心的孩子来说是缺失的。显然,能够明白别人所想的能力是认知和社会发展的—个重要方面。对于自我中心主义的一个解释是具备这种特征的儿童缺乏儿童心理理论(TOM)的概念。因此,这类儿童引起了广泛的关注。

  B

  Wimmer和Perner设计了一个“错误想法的任务”来解决这个问题,他们使用一些玩具来将接下来的故事演绎出来。Maxi在他出门前将一些巧克力放在一个蓝色的橱柜上,(第22题)在他出门后他的母亲将巧克力移到了绿色的橱柜上,研究人员问其他孩子Maxi回来后会倾向于在哪个橱柜上找之前放的巧克力,大多数4岁以下的儿童给出了错误的答案,(第15题)他们认为Maxi会在绿色的橱柜上找巧克力,而超过四岁的孩子认为Maxi会在蓝色的橱柜上找。这些错误的答案表明年纪较小的孩子不能理解Maxi最初的想法和实际情况是不同的,他们不能理解Maxi会以自己的想法来采取行动而不是依据实际情况。

  C

  Maxi任务的一个更为简单的版本是由Baron-Cohen设计的,他是在考虑到年幼的孩子可能会被复杂性和原来实验中过量的信息所影响的情况。(第17,23题)比方说,分别给Sally和Anne两个孩子一个篮子和一个盒子作为玩具,Sally还有一个玻璃珠,她将玻璃珠放在篮子里,然后放下篮子出去玩了,当她离开房间的时候,Anne从篮子中拿出了玻璃珠,将其放在了盒子里,然后问接受测试的孩子当Sally回来的时候,她会在哪里找她的玻璃珠,如果孩子回答Sally会在自己曾经放置的篮子里找,就算通过:如果孩子回答Sally将会在盒子里找玻璃珠,因为孩子知道玻璃珠后来被放在了那里,即使Sally并不知道玻璃珠藏在哪里,那么就算没有通过。要想通过这个任务测试,那么参加测试的儿童就要能够理解别人的想法是和自己的是不同的,并且他们必须要能够在这个理解的基础上来做出自己的预测。使用错误理解为任务的研究的结果也很一致:大多数正常发展的儿童要到4岁才能通过这个任务的测试。(第24题)

  D

  Lislie认为,在18个月之前,儿童是按照字面来理解这个世界的,很少能够表现伪装的一面。他还认为认知系统是需要分辨什么是假装的什么是实际的。如果儿童不能够分辨,他们就不能分辨想象和现实。Lislie认为这个假装的游戏之所以能奏效,是因为会将后来的代表代替原来的代表,比方说,当假装将香蕉当作电话时,就会认为香蕉有另一个代表含义。他们将会建立这种想法,并且将这种知识储存起来将来得以使用。

  E

  还有证据表明社会发展过程在儿童心理理论(TOM)方面扮演重要的角色。Mein和她的同事发现对于6个月大的婴儿而言,母亲将心比心的言语关怀对其安全归属感和理解他人思想(TOM)放面有关。(第18题)将心比心包括关心婴儿的感觉,以及从婴儿的角度来解释他们的思想状态。(比方说“小宝贝,你觉得饿了吧”)

  F

  Lewis调查了在和Crete和Cyprus的家庭里生活的年纪大一些的孩子,他们发现平时和成人有比较多互动,有较多朋友以及其他年长的孩子的儿童能够在较小的年纪通过TOM测试。(第16,25,26题)此外,因为年幼的孩子更倾向于向自己的同伴讲出自己的想法和感觉而不是将这些告诉自己的母亲,所以同伴间的互动对孩子TOM的发展起着至关重要的刺激作用,Dunn也提出类似的理论,他认为同伴间的互动更倾向于包含假扮的成分,这将造成一个不小的挑战,因为儿童不像成人,因为他们不太需要理解别人的需求。(第17,27题)

  G

  此外,TOM的测试方法的某些方面低估了儿童对别人的理解。毕竟儿童会直接指向目标物来改变-个人的关注点和兴趣:他们能够和其他人很好地互动,他们表达和别人意思相反的想法。所有这些表明,他们或多或少可以理解别人的想法和自己的是有所不同的。很多研究都支持这个观点,当孩子和坐在对面的成人同时在肴两面印有不同图片的卡片时,3岁的孩子会认为自己所看的图片和对面坐的成人看的图片不同。

  H

  Schatz研究3岁大的孩子随机说的话,发现这些孩子使用自己想的术语,并且经常是在不知道某个东西在哪里并且要找它的时候或是在假装和现实对立的情况下使用它们。因此,儿童的社交能力表明他们在四岁以前是能意识到想法和现实的不同的。(第14题)

  I

  Harris提出了一个不同的解释,他认为儿童常常是善于模拟,包括将自己摆在别人的位置上,然后试图揣测别人会怎么做。因此错误想法实验的成功可以解释为孩子是假设如果是自己的话,自己会怎么做,而不是孩子能够理解别人的想法。这种关于并不存在的情况的想法包括与事实相反的推理。


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